Development of Materialism in India: The Pre-Cārvākas and the Cārvākas

Ramkrishna Bhattacharya

  

The existence of more than one materialist school before the
Cārvāka (eighth century) has been admitted by modern scholars.[1] They have used different nomenclatures
to denote the pre-Cārvāka and Cārvāka materialist systems. I prefer to use
simpler names, «old materialism» and «new materialism».[2]
Unlike them, however, I do not propose to confine the Pre-Cārvāka materialists
to the period before the Common Era. My contention is that such schools
appeared even in the Common Era and they existed side by side for a long time.

The radical departure made by the new materialists (the
Cārvākas) was most apparent in the field of epistemology: even though the
ontology of the old and the new materialists was similar, the partial
acceptance of inference as a valid means of knowledge marked off the new
materialists from the old ones. The sūtra work most probably redacted by
Purandara seems to have retained the old form of the aphorism: nānumānaṃ pramāṇam,
inference is not an instrument of valid cognition. Purandara and following him
Aviddhakarṇa and
Udbhaṭabhaṭṭa
took pains to assert that inference based on perception is perfectly admissible
but an inference on the basis of verbal testimony or authority was not.[3] If we do not want to appear uncharitable
to Hemacandra and others who continued to ridicule the Cārvākas for not
admitting inference as such,[4] we must say that their understanding of
«new materialism» was faulty; they failed or more probably refused to
distinguish between the old and new approaches.

To most of the people materialism (some prefer to call it
naturalism or physicalism) in India means the Cārvāka or what came to be known
as its namesake, Lokāyata.  Both the
words are often used figuratively for materialism in general without, however,
any ulterior motive, but as a matter of habit.[5] The origin of the Cārvāka/Lokāyata
materialist system is thus traced back to hoary antiquity,[6]
 at the least to the first millennium
BCE.[7]

There is enough evidence to prove that the Cārvāka/Lokāyata
was not the only system of materialism in India. Even if we exclude the early
inklings of materialist thought lurking in the Ṛigveda[8] and some of the Upaniṣads, and in the teachings of Ajita
Kesakambala as found in the Dighanikāya, there are several indications of the
existence of several pre-Cārvāka philosophical schools that were for all
intents and purposes fundamentally materialistic, although there were some
differences of opinion among them 
(stated in clear terms in the Tamil epic Maṇimēkalai
27.272-273, to which I shall soon revert) as there were different interpretations
of certain sūtras among the Cārvākas themselves.[9]

Yet the fact is that we do not come across the name of Cārvāka
in the field of philosophy before the eighth century.[10]
Three other words, nāstika, lokāyata and bārhaspatya, were already current to
designate materialism although the same words, particularly nāstika and lokāyata,
were also used in other senses too.[11]
By the eighth century, however, all these words have become interchangeable in
signification and so used in the works of several Buddhist, Jain and
Brahminical authors such as Kamalaśīla,[12]
Śīlāṅka,[13]
Jayantabhaṭṭa[14] and others. Hemacandra (AC 3.526-527)
records all the four words as synonymous in his lexicon. Names like dehātmavāda,
indriyātmavāda, mana-ātmavāda, prāṇātmavāda,[15] etc. apparently refer to some
pre-Cārvāka systems of philosophy, for these views are discussed separately,
unconnected with the Cārvāka/Lokāyata.[16]
Sāyaṇa-Mādhava, perhaps following Śaṅkara, mentions dehātmavāda in SDS,
chapter 1 (p. 6), to mean the Cārvākas.

It needs to be emphasized that materialism in India,
however, did not begin with the Cārvāka/Lokāyata. On the other hand, it came as
the culmination of a long history of heterodoxy and the attempt to see nature
«just as it is, without alien addition».[17]
There are several words in Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit that bear evidence to the
existence of materialist outlooks, if not of systems, before the Cārvākas. We
shall take up two such words first.

1. Nāstika

The oldest word implying dissidence from the orthodox
Brahminical view of the world is of course nāstika, the Neinsager (to use a
convenient word once employed by Bertolt Brecht in his play Der Jasager und der
Neinsager). The KUp (sometime after the fifth century BCE) is perhaps the first
attempt to refute the heretical idea, namely, denial of the after-world, which
characterized the idealists and the materialists in India.

The word nāstikya, like another such word avaidika, however occurs
only once in the whole Upaniṣadic
literature, and that too in a later text, MUp 3.5 and 7.10 respectively. We
learn from Vāmana and Jayāditya, commentators of Pāṇini’s
Aṣṭādhyāyī,
that it is the existence of the after-world that is affirmed and denied by two
sets of people; those who affirm are known as āstikas; those who deny, nāstikas.[18] This was the original meaning of these
terms. Other meanings, such as the upholder and the denigrator of the Veda,[19] the theist and the atheist (current in
modern Indian languages such as Bangla, Hindi, Marathi, etc. even today), etc.
came later.

The Jains explain the word somewhat differently: a nāstika
is one who thinks that there is no virtue and vice, nāsti puṇyaṃ
pāpam iti matirasya nāstikaḥ.[20] To this Malliṣeṇa adds the denial of the after-world[21] and Guṇaratna,
the denial of the self: te (scil. nāstikāḥ)
ca  jīvapuṇyapāpādikaṃ na manyante.[22]
The opposition is on ethical grounds rather than ontological.

Medhātithi in his commentary on the Manu, explains the word nāstika
in two senses:  a denier of the
after-world (paralokāpavādin; on Manu 8.22) and as one who hold the  view that the Vedic doctrines are false (vedapramāṇākānām arthānāṃ
mithyātvādhyavasayaḥ;
on Manu 4.163). It may be pointed out that the first signification is directly
connected with ontology (the view rejecting the existence of the extra-corporal
and imperishable self distinguishes the materialists from the idealists) while
the second is more relevant to the domain of epistemology (whether śabda, verbal
testimony, is to be admitted as a valid instrument of cognition, and if so, if
the Veda is to be admitted as the highest of such testimony). The materialists
are to be called nāstika in the first sense only. In fact Buddhist and Jain
savants join their voice in condemning the materialists as nāstikas whereas in
the second sense the Buddhists and the Jains too are branded so. In both
senses, however, the approbatory nature of the word is obvious. Like another
such word, pāṣaṇḍin, it is loaded with an attitude of
censure and disapproval.  

Nāstika is the commonest word to suggest irreligious
attitude. Whether in the Mbh 12.36.43 or Vātsyāyana’s commentary on NS 1.1.2, nāstikya
is used in this sense.[23] But Vātsyāyana also employs the word to
mean materialism (on NS 3.2.61). Similarly the ṇāhiyavādī/natthiyavāī
in the Saṅghadāsagaṇi’s Vasudevahiṃḍī
(pp. 169, 275) and the nāhiyavādī in Haribhadra’s Samarāicca Kahā (p. 164) is a
materialist. Āryaśūra’s Jātakamālā 23.57 employs the work nāstika to suggest a
materialist or a non-believer.

A passage from the Vasudevahiṃḍī
(p. 275), a Prakrit work written in the third century, makes the position of
some earlier natthiyavāis (nāstikavādins) clear:

jahā iṃdadhaṇu jahicchāë daṃsaṇīyaṃ
uppajjati, puṇo vi jahicchāë
paviṇassaë;  evaṃ
na koï ettha sārabhūö atthi [*na koï*]
jo  sarīrapabheë ï parabhavasaṃkāmī (Emphasis added).

«As the rainbow is seen accidentally and disappears accidentally
again, so is there no essence, [nothing] that goes through another birth to
another body».

E. Frauwallner  (1997,
vol 2: 222) interprets a Cārvāka sūtra I.9, jalabudbudavaj jīvāḥ, «Souls are like water bubbles» (see
Bhattacharya 2009: 79, 87) as a denial of the rigorous law of retribution
following from the power of good and bad actions. This would make the Cārvāka/Lokāyatas
appear as accidentalists (yadṛcchāvādins).
But E. Franco’s (1997: 99) way of viewing the simile as an expression of
epiphenomenalism, in my opinion, is more appropriate. The analogy has nothing
to do with necessity and accident.[24]

2. Bhūtavāda

The presence of several groups of pre-Cārvāka materialists
is testified by an old Jain canonical work, the SKS (1.1.1-20, 2.1.15-16). Śīlāṅka (ninth century) in his commentary on
the SKS employs the word bhūtavādin along with Bārhaspatya, Cārvāka and
Lokāyatika (on SKS 1.1. 6-8, pp.10-11). He identifies egesā (in Sanskrit ekeṣām) with the bhūtavādins and calls them
«followers of the doctrine of Bṛhaspati»
(on SKS 1.1.7-8). He uses another synonym, tajjīvataccharīravādin (on SKS
1.1.11-14; pp. 13-14), «one who holds that the spirit and the body are
identical» as well as nāstika (on SKS 1.1.14; p.15). The SKS also refers to
several other presumably materialist schools that mostly spoke of five elements
(1.1.7-8, 15, 20-25) instead of four (which the Cārvākas did). Śīlāṅka apparently did not attach any importance
to bhūtacatuṣṭayavāda
(four-elements doctrine) of the Cārvākas and identified even the bhūtapañcakavādins
(mentioned in SKS 1.1.7)[25] at first with the Cārvākas and then as bhūtavādins
and Bārhaspatyas! Śīlāṅka’s
identification of many of the opponents of the Jain creed, however, is not
always convincing. In his comments on the same text (on SKS 2.1.20) he himself
is uncertain about the identity of «the second man» and proposes two
alternatives: either the Laukāyitakas or the Sāṃkhyas.
He uses all the names of materialists current in his time – Cārvāka, nāstika,
Bārhaspatya, bhūtavādin (also pañcabhūtavādyādyāḥ
and more elaborately as pañcabhūtāstitvādivādinaḥ
(on SKS 1.1.20-25; p. 19), and Laukāyatikas (besides tajjīvataccharīravādins) –
interchangeably, as many others such as Kamalaśīla and Jayantabhaṭṭa do (see above).

We do not know whether materialism appeared in south India
(as recorded in Maṇimēkalai,
composed between the third and the seventh century CE) quite independent of the
developments in the north. Whatever the case may be, there can be little doubt
that materialism in course of time gained adherents even in faraway Kashmir.[26] In or around the eighth century one such
school came to be known as the Cārvāka. Partial acceptance of the validity of
inference was their hallmark. They distinguished themselves from the bhūtavādins
and other earlier materialists by declaring their view regarding inference in
no uncertain terms. Yet a host of their opponents, whether they were
Brahminical, Buddhist or Jain, continued to criticize them for not admitting
inference at all as an instrument of cognition.

Who are the bhūtavādins? In the list of rival claimants for
the first cause (jagatkāraṇa)
given in the ŚvUp 1.2, bhūtāni (the elements), along with time, svabhāva (own
nature), niyati (destiny) and others are mentioned. There is no way to prove
that bhūtavāda was a direct descendent of the doctrine of bhūtāni. We first
read of the bhūtavādins in the Maṇimēkalai
who in many respects resemble the lokāyatikas. The bhūtavādin, however, says
that on doctrinal points they have some differences with the Lokāyatas. This
Tamil epic does not mention the Cārvākas, but does refer to the Lokāyatas. A bhūtavādin
is made to declare the basic doctrine of the system he adheres to in the following
terms (27.265-76; p. 154):

When aathi (?) flowers, sugar and the rest

Are mixed, wine is made. Life too appears

By the mixing of elements, vanishes

When they separate as sounds from a drum.

Conscious elements produce life within

And unconscious one produces the body

Each appearing through their elements.

This is the truth. Words different from this

And other facts are from Materialists [Lokāyatas].

Sense perception is valid. Inference

Is false. This birth and its effect conclude

Now. Talk of other birth is falsity.[27]

The words of the bhūtavādin have been paraphrased by a late
medieval commentator in the following way:

When certain flowers and jaggery are boiled together, liquor
is born which produced intoxication. Just as when elements combine,
consciousness arises. Consciousness dissolves with the dissolutions of the
elements composing them like the disintegration of sound. Elements combine to
produce living bhūtas and from them other living bhūtas will be born. Life and
consciousness are synonymous. From non-living bhūtas consisting of two or more
elements rise non-living bhūtas of the same type. Lokāyata is a variant of this
system that agrees in fundamental with this system. Observation is the method
by knowledge is obtained. Inferential thinking is illusion. This worldly life
is real. Its effect is experienced in this life only. The theory that we enjoy
the fruits of our action in our next birth or in another world is false.[28]

So far as the Maṇimēkalai
is concerned, the number of elements admitted by the bhūtavādins is not
specified; hence there is no way of ascertaining whether the bhūtavādins spoke
of five or four elements. The first statement regarding the rise of
consciousness is very much similar to the Cārvāka aphorism: «As the power of
intoxication (arises or is manifested) from the constituent parts of the wine
(such as flour, water and molasses)».[29]
The rejection of rebirth is a basic materialist position which can be traced
back to much earlier sources.[30]

The bhūtavādin in the Tamil epic, however, rejects inference
as such, declaring it to be false. On the other hand, the Cārvākas, as it has
been pointed out time and again,[31] do admit inference in all worldly
affairs.

3. The Old and the New Materialists: Points of Difference

In view of all this the new materialists (Cārvākas) may be
distinguished from the old materialists of all sorts in the following respects:

a) Instead of five elements (including ākāśa or vyoma,
space) as their principle (tattva), the Cārvākas spoke of four, excluding
space,[32] presumably because it was not amenable
to sense-perception.

b) The bhūtavādins believed in two kinds of matter: lifeless
and living. Life originates from living matter, the body from the lifeless. The
Cārvāka/Lokāyatas did not believe in such duality; to them all beings/entities
were made of the same four basic elements.[33]

c)  There was another
domain in which the two differed more radically. Some of the Pre-Cārvāka
materialists were accidentalists (yadṛcchāvādins);
they did not believe in causality. On the other hand, the Cārvākas appear to
have endorsed causality;[34] they adopted the doctrine of svabhāva-as-causality
rather than the opposite one, namely, svabhāva-as-accident.[35]

d)  The Cārvākas admitted
the validity of inference insofar as it was confined to the material and
perceptible world (hence verifiable), not extended to the invisible and
unverifiable areas, such as the imperishable soul, god, omniscient persons
(admitted by the Buddhists and the Jains as well), the outcome of performing
sacrifices called apūrva (as claimed by the Mīmāṃsakas),
etc.,[36] while some of the old materialists
rejected inference as such as an instrument of cognition, and clung to
perception alone.

Bibliography

a) Primay sources and abbreviations

AC = Hemacandra, Abhidhānacintāmaṇi: The Abhidhānacintāmaṇi
of Hemachandrāchārya. With His Own Notes (2 vols.), ed. by H.T. Seṭha, 
B.J. Dośī and M.M. Jayantavijaya, N.L. Vakil, Bhavnagar 1914-1919.

Āryaśūra, Jātakamālā: Jātaka-mālā by Ārya Śūra, ed. by P.L. Vaidya, The Mithila
Institute, Darbhanga 1959.

Aṣṭ
= Pāṇini, Aṣṭādhyāyī: Aṣṭādhyāyī
of Pāṇini, ed. and Engl. trans. by
S.M. Katre, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi 1989.

AYVD = Hemacandra, Anyayogavyavacchedadvātṛṃśikā (see SVM).

Bṛhaspatisūtra: Brihaspati Sutra, Or the Science of Politics According to
the School of Brihaspati, ed. by F.W. Thomas, Motilal Banarsidass – The Pubjab
Sanskrit Book Depot, Lahore 1971 (rep.).

BS = Bādarāyana, Brahmasūtra: The Brahmasūtra Śaṅkara
Bhāṣya. With the Commentaries
Bhāmatī, Kalpataru and Parimala, ed. by A.K. Śāstrī and V.L. Shastri Pansikar,
Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi 1982.

BSB = Śaṅkara,
Bharmasūtrabhāṣya
(see BS).

EPU = Eighteen Principal Upaniṣads,
ed. by V.P. Limaye and R.D. Vadekar, Vaidika Samsodhana Mandala, Poona 1958.

Haribhadra, Samarāicca Kahā: Samaraicca Kahā. A Jaina Prakrta Work, ed. by H. Jacobi, The
Asiatic Society, Calcutta 1926.

Jinendrabuddhi, Viśālāmalavatī Pramāṇasamuccayaṭīkā: Jinendrabuddhi’s Viśālāmalavatī Pramāṇasamuccayaṭīkā: Chapter 1 (vol. 1), ed. by. E.
Steinkellner, H. Krasser and H. Lasic, China Tibetology Publishing House –
Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, Beijing – Vienna 2005.

KUp = Kaṭha
Upaniṣad (see EUP).

Manu = Manusmṛti: Manu-Smṛti,
With Nine Commentaries by Medhātithi, Sarvajnanārāyaṇa,
Kullūka, Rāghavānanda, Nandana, Rāmacandra, Maṇirāma,
Govindarāja, and Bhāruci (6 vols.), ed. by. J.H. Dave, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan,
Bombay 1972-84.

MBh = Mahābhārata: The Mahābhārata (19 vols.), crit. ed. by V.S. Sukthankar et
alii, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona 1933-1966.

MUp = Maitrī (or Maitrāyaṇī
or Maitrāyaṇīya)
Upaniṣad (see EPU).

NM = Jayantabhaṭṭa,
Nyāyamañjarī: Nyāyamañjarī of Jayanta Bhaṭṭa,
With the Commentary of Granthibhaṅga
of Cakradhara (3 vols.), ed. by. G. Sastri, Sampurnanand Sanskrit Vishvavidyalaya,
Varanasi 1982-84.

NS = Gautama, Nyāyasūtra: Nyāya Darśana Vātsyāyana Bhāṣya
[in Bengali], ed. by Ph. Tarkavagīśa, West Bengal State Book Board, Calcutta
1989 (rep.).

Rām = Rāmāyaṇa: The Vālmīki Rāmāyaṇa:
The Ayodhyākāṇḍa, ed.
by P.L. Vaidya, Oriental Institute, Baroda 1962.

Sadānanda Kāśmīraka, Advaitvabrahmasiddhi: Advaita-Brahma-Siddhi by Kaśmīraka Śrī Sadānanda Yati, ed.
by G. Tarka-Darshanatirtha and P. Tarkavagish, University of Calcutta, Calcutta
1932.

Sadānanda Yogīndra, Vedāntasāra: Vedāntasāra, Or The Essence of Vedānta of Sadānanda Yogīndra,
Engl. trans. by S. Nikhilānanda, Advaita Ashrama, Calcutta 1990.

Saṅghadāsagaṇi, Vasudevahiṃḍī: Vasudevahiṃḍī
prathama khaṇḍam,
ed. by M. Caturavijaya and M. Punyavijaya, Gujarat Sahitya Akademi, Gandhinagar
1989.

SDS = Sāyaṇa-Mādhava,
Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha: Sarva-Darśana-Saṃgraha
of Sāyaṇa-Mādhava, ed. by. V.S.
Abhyankar, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Insitute, Poona 1978 (rep.).

ṢDSam =
Haribhadra, Ṣaḍdarśanasamuccaya: Ṣaḍdarśanasamuccaya of Haribhadra Sūri.
With the Commentaries Tarka-rahasya-dīpikā of Guṇaratna
Sūri and Laghuvṛtti
of Somatilaka Sūri and an Avacūrni, ed. by M.K. Jain, Bharatiya Jnanapitha,
Varanasi 1969.

Śīlāṅka,
Sūtrakṛtāṇgasūtraṭīkā (see SKS).

Sīthalai Sāttanār, Maṇimēkalai: Silappattikaram, Manimekalai [by Iḷaṅkō Aḍikaḷ and Sīthalai Sāttanār], Engl.
rendering by L. Holmstörm, Orient Longman, Hyderabad 1996.

SKS = Sūtrakṛtāṅgasūtra:

Ācārāṅgasūtram
and Sūtrakṛtāṅgasūtram with Niryukti of Ācārya
Bhadrabāhu Svāmī and the Commentary of Śīlāṅkācārya,
ed. by Ā.S. Mahārāja (re-ed. with Appendix by M. Jambūviyajaji), Motilal Banarsidass,
Delhi 1978.

Sureśvara, Mānasollāsasaṃgraha: Śrī Śaṅkarācārya’s
Dakṣiṇāmūrti
Stotra with the Vārttika Mānasollāsa of Sureśvarācārya, ed. and Engl. trans. by
S. Harshananda, Ramaskrishna Math, Bangalore 1992.

SVM = Malliṣeṇa, Syādvādamañjarī: Syādvādamañjarī of Malliṣeṇa, with the Anyayoga-Vyavaccheda-Dvātriṃśikā of Hemacandra, ed. by. A. B.
Dhruva, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona 1933.

ŚvUp = Śvetaśvatara Upaniṣad
(see EPU).

TRD = Guṇaratna,
Tarkarahasyadīpikā: Shaḍdarśana-samuchchaya
by Haribhadra with Guṇaratna’s
Commentary Tarkarahasya-dīpikā, ed. L. Suali, The Asiatic Society, Calcutta
1905.

TS = Śāntarakṣita,
Tattvasaṃgraha: The Tattvasaṃgraha
of Ācārya Śāntarakṣita
with the “Pañjikā” Commentary of Ācārya Kamalaśīla (2 vols.), ed. by D. Śāstrī,
Bauddha Bharati, Varanasi 1968.

TSP = Kamalaśīla, Tattvasaṃgrahapañjikā
(See TS).

Vācaspatimiśra, Bhāmatī (see BS).

Vāmana and Jayāditya, Kāśikā: Pāṇinīyavyākaraṇasūtravṛtti.
Kāśikā of Pt. Vāmana and Jayāditya (2 vols.), ed. by N. Miśra, Chowkhamba,
Varanasi 1996.

Vātsyāyana, Nyāyabhāṣya
(see NS).

Vyom = Vyomśivācārya, Vyomavatī: Vyomavatī of Vyomśivācārya (2 vols.), ed. by G. Shastri,
Sampurnanand Sanskrit Vishvavidyalaya, Varanasi 1983-1984.

Yāmuna, Siddhitraya: Śrī bhagavad Yāmunamuni viracitaṃ
Siddhitrayam, ed by. T. Virarāghavācārya, Tirupati Śrīvāṇī
Mudraṇālaya, Tirupati 1942.

b) Secondary sources

Bhattacharya, R.: 2009a  Reasoners and Religious Law-makers: An Ancient Indian Case Study, «Journal of Indian Council
of Philosophical Research», 26, 49-56.

Bhattacharya, R.:  2009b  Studies on theCārvāka/Lokāyata, Società Editrice Fiorentina, Firenze.

Bhattacharya, R.: 2010a  Commentators on the Cārvākasūtra: A Critical Survey, «Journal of Indian Philosophy»,  38, 419-430.

Bhattacharya, R.: 2010b  «LokāyataDarśana and a Comparative Study with Greek materialism», in P. Ghose (ed. by), Materialism
and Immaterialism in India and the West: Varying Vistas, Centre for the Studies
on Civilizations, New Delhi, 21-34.

Bhattacharya, R.: 2010c  «LokāyataMaterialism: Classification of Source Materials», in  S. Charan Goswami (ed. by), Lokāyata
Philosophy: A Fresh Appraisal, The Asiatic Society, Kolkata, 37-42.

Bhattacharya, R.: 2010d  What theCārvākas Originally Meant: More on the Commentators of the Cārvākasūtra, «Journal
of Indian Philosophy», 38, 529-542.

Bhattacharya, R.: 2012 Svabhāvavāda and the Cārvāka/Lokāyata: A Historical
Overview, «Journal of Indian Philosophy», 40, 593-614.

Bronkhorst, J.: 2007    Greater
Magadha: Studies in the Culture of Early India, Brill, Leiden.

Chattopadhyaya, D.: 1989    In Defence of
Materialism in Ancient India, People’s Publishing House, New Delhi.

Chattopadhyaya, D. and Gangopadhyaya M.K.: 1990    Cārvāka/Lokāyata,
Indian Council of Philosophical Research, New Delhi.

Dasgupta, S.: 1975    A History of
Indian Philosophy (vol. 2), Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi (rep.).

Del Toso, K.: 2012    «tebhyaś
caitanyaṃ : il “sé” secondo il
Materialismo indiano», in A. Cislaghi and K. Del Toso (ed. by), Intrecci
filosofici. Pensare il Sé a Oriente e a Occidente, Mimesis, Milano-Udine,
135-153.

Engels, F.: 1966    Dialectics of
Nature, Progress Publishers, Moscow.

Franco, E.: 1997    Dharmakīrti on
Compassion and Rebirth, Arbeitskreis für Tibetische und Buddhistische Studien,
Universität Wien, Wien.

Franco, E and Preisendanz, K.: 1998    «Materialism,
Indian School of», in E. Craig (ed. by), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(vol. 6), Routledge, London, 179.

Frauwallner, E.: 1997    History of
Indian Philosophy (2 vols.), Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi.

Gangopadhyaya, M.K.: 1984    Indian Logic in
Its Sources: The Validity of Inference, Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi.

Hiriyanna, M.: 1952    Popular Essays
in Indian Philosophy Kavyalaya Publishers, Mysore.

Marx, K. and Engels, F.: 1957    On Religion,
Foreign Languages Publishing House, Moscow.

Mookerjee, S.: 1935    The Buddhist
Philosophy of Universal Flux, Calcutta University, Calcutta.

Radhakrishnan, S.: 1948    Indian
Philosophy (vol. 1), George Allen and Unwin, London.

Sen, A.K.: 2005    The
Argumentative Indian, Penguin Books, London.

Tarkavagisa, Ph.: 1982    Nyāyadarśana o
Vātsyāyana Bhāṣya
(vol. 3), Paschimbanga Rajya Pustak Parshat, Calcutta (rep.).

Vanamamalai, N.: 1973    Materialist
Thought in Early Tamil Literature, «Social Scientist», 2, 25-41.

Whitney, W.D.: 1890    Translation of
the Kaṭha-Upaniṣad,
«Transactions of the American Philological Association», 21, 88-112.