Direct Perception
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Carvaka Philosophy in Prabodhacandrodaya
Kṛṣṇa Miśra’s 11th-century allegorical drama Prabodhacandrodaya offers a critical secondary source on ancient Indian materialism. Translated by Dr. Sita K. Nambiar, the excerpted dialogue features Grand Delusion and Cārvāka advocating perception-based epistemology, physicalism, and sensory pleasure while rejecting Vedic ritualism, karmic retribution, and an immortal soul.
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The Materialism of the Charvakas Lokayatikas
Ancient Indian materialism, represented by the Cārvāka Lokāyata school, sharply rejected Vedic authority, priestcraft, and supernatural deities. The doctrine asserts that the universe originates solely from four material elements—earth, water, fire, and air. Direct sense perception serves as the only valid source of genuine knowledge, denying any existence after physical death.
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The Chárváka System
Mādhavācārya’s 14th-century Sarva-Darśana-Saṃgraha opening chapter introduces the Chārvāka, or Lokāyata, school of Indian materialism. Translated by E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough, the text establishes direct perception as the only valid knowledge source, rejecting karma, supernatural forces, and immortal souls. It maintains that consciousness arises from material elements and emphasizes earthly pleasure.